Godel's Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to Its Use and Abuse

Customer Reviews:

Sorry to dissent again.......2007-05-18

Aside from my finding Goedel's theorem false, I see this book as dismally failing in its purport to be written for a general audience, also contended in the two blurbs on the back cover, stating that the book "explain[s] clearly and thoroughly just what the theorems really say" and "With exceptional clarity...gives careful, non-technical explanations..."

The book instead indulges in such a profusion of technical language that it appears only suitable for discussions in specialized journals, and indeed there seems to be a polemic going on in it with many fellow-professionals, including well known scientists like Hawking, Dyson or Penrose. In the process the author doesn't as much as give a clear form of the basic "Goedel sentence", around which the theorem revolves, although he refers to it numerous times, notably on page 55. Likewise he doesn't make clear how "Goedel numbering" is performed, claiming it a "technicality that will be avoided" (p.35), despite its frequent and simple explanation by others, and to which he attaches great importance for its "arithmetization of syntax" (same page). Therein lies the objectionable connection of the theorem with mathematics.

"Arithmetization of syntax" discloses that "Goedel numbering" is performed on linguistic components of the arguments. That is to say, these components, from single letters to series of sentences are each assigned numbers, in impressively intricate arrangements, and then it is said the contents of those arguments somehow apply to mathematics. It is not recognized that the numbering merely concerns the language in which the arguments are couched, not the contents of that language.

To support their reasoning, the proponents offer all kinds of analogies. In this book the author uses (p.36) the comparison of binary data, the mathematical collection of bits 0 and 1, as representing sounds and pictures in computer games. Here, however, the subject is physics, to which mathematics applies, even if not observable in the result. Similarly there are other examples in which the subject matter has some connection with mathematics. But the subject matter in Goedel's arguments, the content of the "Goedel sentence" and of the logic applied, does, again, not concern mathematics. Only the language, by being designated with numbers, does.

It should be appropriate here to go back to that Goedel sentence and the associated logic. I discussed these in other reviews, and I might now first provide a simple form of that sentence again, looked for in vain in the book reviewed. It is:

THIS STATEMENT IS UNPROVABLE (IN THE SYSTEM).

As noted previously, Goedel's alleged proof of this statement is said derived from outside the system and accordingly not to be contradicting the statement. But I pointed out that the rules of logic used can be incorporated into any system, a procedure that should be allowed in order to find what is or isn't logically possible, and therefore the proof would indeed be a contradiction. I noted in fact another contradiction resulting via simple logic: THE STATEMENT CAN BE PROVED UNPROVABLE, since if provable it would be contradicted; AND THE STATEMENT CANNOT BE PROVED UNPROVABLE, since if proved it would again be contradicted.

What is significant is that the statement, thus harboring contradictions, cannot be added to the axioms of the system as suggested by the discussants, because that would make the system inconsistent, with consistency vehemently, and justly, insisted on by all authors. The discussants believe that the statement is legitimate, because it is a "well formed formula", i.e. it abides by grammatical rules. But contradictions are possible within the best of grammar. The problem is better attributed to positing "formal systems", ones without meaning, since in those cases one has no content to fall back on for the search of hidden contradictions.

Hidden contradictions are the province of paradoxes, to which the Goedel sentence can be relegated, and which I also consider, but elsewhere: On Proof for Existence of God, and Other Reflective Inquiries.

An excellent choice for courses that cover the philosophy of science and mathematics.......2007-05-14

Godel's Incompleteness Theorems were a revolution in mathematics and there were repercussions and misunderstandings that rippled out into other fields. The main theorem first appeared in an Austrian journal in 1931 and can be stated very simply.

In any consistent formal system S within which it is possible to perform a minimum amount of elementary arithmetic, there are statements that can neither be proved nor disproved.

The consequences are enormous, in that it means that in any system that can be used to perform arithmetic, there will be theorems that can never be verified as either true or false. In other words, some knowledge will forever be unattainable within that system. Of course, this does not preclude adding additional axioms that will allow other theorems to be proved.
Franzen does an excellent job in explaining the incompleteness theorems in a manner that can be understood by people with a limited knowledge of mathematics. While there are few places where a high school mathematics education is not sufficient to understand a more technical argument, it will be enough to understand and appreciate the theorems.
My favorite parts of the book were the sections devoted to "applications" of the incompleteness theorem outside of mathematics. Some examples are from religion, political science and philosophy. Godel's theorems are used to "prove" that no religion can contain a complete set of answers and that any constitution must of necessity be incomplete. Human thought is also interpreted in the context of the incompleteness theorems. The statement is:

Insofar as humans attempt to be logical, their thoughts form a formal system and are necessarily bound by Godel's theorem.

This statement and others related to the nature of human thought are examined in detail. The philosophy of Ayn Rand is also examined as a system that must of necessity be incomplete. This book would be an excellent supplemental text for a philosophy course where the nature of truth is examined. It would also be a very good choice for a course in the philosophy of mathematics.

Published in Journal of Recreational Mathematics, reprinted with permission.

Excellent Summary.......2007-01-15

The analysis of many of the misuses of Godel's Theorems is going to be useful in teaching. Thanks for doing all the hard work for me.

An Excellent Book Clarifying the Proper Use (And Abuse) of Godel's Theorems........2007-01-14

Ever since the logician Kurt Godel (1906-1978) proposed his famous Incompleteness Theorems, various claims have been made about their implications. In particular, it is largely agreed that the Incompleteness Theorems were revolutionary in the fields of mathematics (as well as philosophy, computer science, and science in general). However, the "revolutionary" nature of these theorems is highly exaggerated (as the author explains in this book). Indeed, the theorems are frequently used to justify all manner of assertions about what can be known or proven (e.g. the theorems are even used to explicate Zen Buddhism, with its koans, among other things). In particular, the theorems have been claimed to justify various popular claims made in the philosophy of mathematics, science (particularly regarding the so-called Theory of Everything (TOE) hoped for in theoretical physics), religion (including theology), and mind, as well as being used as arguments for skepticism regarding truth and for postmodernist philosophies. In the book _Godel's Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to Its Use and Abuse_, Torkel Franzen contends with some of these assertions showing how many of them are highly problematic. Franzen (who provides plenty of examples of the use of such arguments from his discussions on the internet) attempts to delineate exactly what is and is not implied by these theorems. Franzen contends that many of the claims made (allegedly supported by the proof) are simply erroneous, but that others can be understood as relying on analogy (appealing to the idea of self-reference and using Godel's Theorems as a sort of inspiration). Franzen does not denigrate the use of analogy in such cases but merely points out the fact that analogy is limited and that frequently deeper justification is called for. In this sense, the book is extremely helpful in that it shows exactly what can and cannot be derived from the theorems, as well as many of the errors and assumptions made in the various claims. However, it should be noted from the beginning that this book is extremely difficult. Despite what the author says in the preface, this book is probably not for those who do not have a background in mathematics or philosophy and who are not used to the methods of mathematical proof. Further, many of the arguments presented in this book are extremely subtle (and even after carefully reading through it, I still cannot be sure that I have grasped all of them or that I can make the proper distinctions). Thus, even for the advanced reader the book needs to be read with care. In fact, as Franzen effectively shows even among many famous and well-respected scientists, mathematicians, logicians, and philosophers (those who should know better!), the implications of the theorems are not widely understood.

In his famous address to an international congress of mathematicians in 1900, David Hilbert made his famous appeal to mathematicians calling for mathematical optimism ("non ignorabimus") regarding the prospects of mathematical proof. It is widely believed, however, that by proving his Incompleteness Theorem, Godel effectively demolished Hilbert's program and refuted optimism. There are actually two incompleteness theorems of Godel (extended by Rosser so as to include a stronger notion of consistency and not merely "omega-consistency"). They are as follows:

First Incompleteness Theorem: Any consistent formal system S within which a certain amount of elementary arithmetic can be carried out is incomplete with regard to statements of elementary arithmetic: there are statements which can be neither proved, nor disproved in S.

Second Incompleteness Theorem: For any consistent formal system S within which a certain amount of elementary arithmetic can be carried out, the consistency of S cannot be proved within S itself.

In Chapter 2 of this book, Franzen explains fully these two theorems, defining a formal system (two formal systems that will play a role in this discussion are that of Peano Arithmetic (PA) and the Zermelo-Frankel axioms of set theory (with the axiom of choice) (ZFC) in which normal mathematics is conducted), as well as what it means for that system to be consistent and complete. (Franzen defines what he terms "Goldbach-like statements" in his definition of consistency and soundness.) Franzen also discusses what is meant by "a certain amount of elementary arithmetic" (and also brings up a common misunderstanding of Godel's original Completeness Theorem for first-order predicate logic). Franzen dismisses a common misunderstanding that these theorems say something about "complexity" of a formal system. Franzen also shows how formal systems relate to the theory of computability (developed by Turing). In addition, Franzen argues that while Godel's Theorems may appear to refute Hilbert's optimistic claims, that it is non-obvious that they would apply to the undecidability of any questions that occur in normal mathematics (such as the Goldbach conjecture; although later he shows how they have been shown to apply to certain obscure combinatorial questions). The proof of Godel's Theorems involves making use of Godel numbers assigned to sentences in the language and then making use of a self-referential condition which amounts to the so-called Liar's Paradox (i.e. "This sentence is false."). Franzen then proceeds to show how various attempts to justify postmodernism based on these theorems in fact rest on a misunderstanding (in that mathematics does not "branch off" as suggested by the postmodernist). Franzen also explains exactly what Godel believed his theorems said about the human mind (and this differs from some of the more radical attempts to argue that the mind is non-mechanistic based on the theorems). In Chapter 3, Franzen considers computability, formal systems, and enumerability. Franzen explains how computability relates to formal systems and defines the notions of enumerable and decidable for sets of strings. Franzen then proves the theorems using these methods (as shown by Turing). There are however various tricky issues involved here and a careful reading of this chapter is required. In Chapter 4, Godel considers some of the implications of the theorems for philosophy. Here, he shows that the theorems say nothing about formal systems which may not include arithmetic (such as the Bible or Ayn Rand's philosophy, etc. considered as such). Franzen also shows what these theorems do and do not have to say about "human thought". Franzen also considers so-called "generalized Godel sentences" (in both mathematical and non-mathematical contexts). Franzen also considers various arguments put forward in physics against a TOE (such as by Hawking and Dyson) making use of these theorems and shows how these arguments are not valid. Franzen also considers various theological arguments relying on these theorems as a justification for faith (or for atheism as the case may be), and shows how such attempts are also not valid. In Chapter 5, Franzen considers the case for skepticism made with the help of these arguments. Franzen shows how the arguments do not in fact support a case for mathematical skepticism. Franzen also explains exactly what is meant by "mathematical inexhaustibility" and how this relates to the case for skepticism. (Again, the argument here is extremely subtle and interesting, and this chapter should be read very carefully.) In Chapter 6, Franzen considers the question of what the theorems have to say about minds and computers. Franzen discusses an idea of Rudy Rucker regarding a "Universal Truth Machine" and shows how this rests on a false understanding. Franzen also considers arguments put forward by Lucas and Roger Penrose (and shows how some of them are justified but how others are problematic). Franzen also considers mathematical inexhaubibility again as well as the ability to "understand one's own mind" (referencing an analogy of Hofstadter's). However, it should be noted that Franzen's analogy to the systems PA and ZFC regarding self-understanding is itself nothing more than an analogy, and thus suffers from the same problems as the analogy of Hofstadter's regarding the inability to attain self-understanding. In Chapter 7, Franzen considers the question of Godel's Completeness Theorem, showing a common confusion that arises from this theorem and the Incompleteness Theorems. In Chapter 8, Franzen provides a very interesting discussion of incompleteness, complexity, and infinity. Franzen illustrates Chaitin's Incompleteness Theorem (which relies on a notion of complexity and a form of Berry's paradox). Franzen also shows how some of Chaitin's claims about randomness may be problematic. Finally, Franzen considers various questions concerning infinity; particularly the Continuum Hypothesis (CH) and nonstandard models of arithmetic (Robinson). The book ends with an appendix which provides a more detailed exposition of the "Goldbach-like statements".

This book is very interesting and useful; in that, it provides an excellent clarification of the role of Godel's theorems. These theorems are frequently abused by philosophers to make points which they do not in fact make. The arguments in this book are extremely subtle and may be difficult to follow; however, I believe that fundamentally they are sound and thus provide an excellent understanding of exactly where an appeal to the Incompleteness Theorems is and is not justified.

Explain this if you can..........2007-01-05

Page 118--"We need to distinguish between 'We know that if T is consistent then G is true,' which is true, and 'If T is consistent then we know that G is true,' which we have no grounds for claiming." Even my Wittgensteinian mind could not fathom this one. Torkel Franzen teaches at a Swedish university, so I thought maybe this book has been translated and something lost in translation. Other than this, excellent, and it explained things long needing explanation. I especially enjoyed his jibes at the mathematical illiterati who contort Goedel for their own purposes.

Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion

Average customer rating:

It's very informative
I can't recommend this book enough...
Propaganda exposed!
Securing Your Compliance = No Great Hurdle
Soft Insight

Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion
Anthony R. Pratkanis , and Elliot Aronson
Manufacturer: W H Freeman & Co (Sd)
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Hardcover

General | Psychology & Counseling | Health, Mind & Body | Subjects | Books

Social Psychology & Interactions | Psychology & Counseling | Health, Mind & Body | Subjects | Books

General | Social Sciences | Nonfiction | Subjects | Books

ASIN: 0716722100

Amazon.com

Drawing on the history of propaganda and modern research in social psychology, this book reveals mass persuasion in action -- not just the tactics, but why they work so well, and how we can protect ourselves from manipulation.

Book Description

We live in an age of propaganda. Americans consume 57% of the world's advertising while representing only 6% of the population, and half of our waking hours are spent with the mass media. Persuasion has always been integral to the democratic process - it's how we make decisions, elect governments, do business, and resolve disputes, but increasingly, thoughtful discussion is being replaced with simplistic sound bites, manipulative messages, and deceptive propaganda tactics.

An eye-opening analysis of the use and abuse of persuasion in daily life, Age of Propaganda reveals how persuasion influences our behavior, which propaganda strategies are most commonly used today, and why some techniques work better than others. Drawing on the history of propaganda and modern research in social psychology, the authors show how the tactics used by political campaigners, sales agents, advertisers, televangelists, demagogues, and others, often take advantage of our emotions by appealing to our deepest fears and most irrational hopes, creating a distorted vision of the world we live in.

Thoroughly revised and updated, this new edition of Age of Propaganda includes coverage of the Clinton/Lewinsky scandal, recent election campaigns, the rise of talk radio, teen suicide, U.F.O abductions, the Columbine shootings, and novel propaganda tactics based on hypocrisy and false allegations. Also included is a completely new chapter on how to protect yourself from unwanted propaganda.

An invaluable guide to today's message-laden world, Age of Propaganda provides us with the knowledge we need to understand how manipulative messages work, how to deal with them sensibly, and how to use persuasion wisely and effectively.

Customer Reviews:

It's very informative .......2007-08-24

here are my notes

The successful persuasion tactic is one that directs and channels thoughts so that the target thinks in a manner agreeable to the communicator's point of view; the successful tactic disrupts any negative thoughts and promotes positive thoughts bout the proposed course of action.

Two routes to persuasion - peripheral and central
Peripheral - a message recipient devotes little attention and effort to processing a communication. Persuasion is determined by simple cues, such as the attractiveness of the communicator, whether or not the people around you agree with the position presented, the pleasure or pain associated with agreeing with the position, or whether a reason is given for complying with the request.
Central - a message recipient engages in a careful and thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information presented. The person may actively argue against the message, may want to know the answer to additional questions, or may seek out new information. The persuasiveness of the message is determined by how well it can stand up to this scrutiny.
What determines which route to persuasion will be adopted? - the recipient's motivation to think about the message - the personal relevance of the issue. * we are cognitive misers, forever trying to conserve our cognitive energy, we adopt the strategies of the peripheral route for simplifying complex problems.

Rationalization trap = first intentionally arouse feelings of dissonance by threatening self esteem, for example, making the person feel guilty about something, by arousing feelings of shame or inadequacy, or by making the person look like a hypocrite or someone who does not honor his or her word. Next, offer a solution, one way of reducing this dissonance, by complying with whatever request the propagandist has in mind. The way to reduce that guilt, eliminate that shame, honor that commitment, and restore your feeling of adequacy is to give to that charity, buy that car, hate that enemy, or vote for that leader.

Almost every war in modern times has been accompanied by characterizations of the enemy as less than human. Dehumanization succeeds in resolving any dissonance that may be aroused by our cruelty toward our enemies. However, watch out; the more we justify our cruelty, the easier it becomes. The rationalization trap becomes an escalating spiral: "I committed an act of cruelty; I justified this act by believing that the victim deserved it. If the victim deserved that cruelty, well maybe they deserve more and maybe I am just the one to give it to them.

Four stratagems of influence
The first is to take control of the situation and establish a favorable climate for your message, a process we call pre-persuasion. Pre-persuasion refers to how the issue is structured and how the decision is framed. If fully successful, pre-persuasion establishes "what everyone knows" and "what everyone takes for granted" By cleverly establishing how an issue is defined and discussed, however, a communicator can influence cognitive responses and obtain consent without even appearing to be attempting to persuade us. Next, the communicator needs to establish a favorable image in the eyes of the audience. We call this stratagem source credibility. In other words, the communicator needs to appear likable or authoritative or trustworthy or possessed of any other attribute that would facilitate persuasion. The third stratagem is to construct and deliver a message that focuses the targets' attention and thoughts on exactly what the communicator wants them to think about - for example, by distracting the targets' attention on a vivid and powerful image, or even by inducing the target to persuade themselves. Finally, effective influence controls emotions of the target and follows a simple rule: Arouse an emotion that just happens to be the desired course of action. In such situations, the target becomes preoccupied with dealing with the emotion, complying with the request in hopes of escaping a negative emotion or maintaining a positive one.

The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world view and mental habits proper to the reader, but to make all other modes of thought impossible. It was intended that when Newspeak have been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten, a heretical thought - should be literally unthinkable, at least so far as thought is dependent on words.
Language, words, labels, categories organize our realities and serve to divide up the world into neat little packages and to imply the range of appropriate courses of action to take. Words have the power to pre-persuade. It defines our reality, our thoughts, our feelings, our imagination and thus influence our behavior.

Agenda setting is of great importance in maintaining power - by determining what issues will be discussed and when, what criteria will be used to resolve disputes, who will sit on what committees, and, which information will be widely disseminated and which will be selectively ignored.

Defining the issue as "losing something" was more persuasive than stating it in terms of a gain
Never ask a question for which you don't know the answer. Never ask a question that doesn't get the answer you want.

Card stacking - the order in which questions are asked and the order in which information is received can distort and bias the decision making process.
Question asking can be a powerful persuasion device because questions structure our decision making process. They do this by directing our thoughts about the issues at hand and by implicitly specifying the range of possible answers.

Context makes a difference, judgment is relative, not absolute. Depending on the context, objects and alternatives can be made to look better or worse. Often we do not pay much attention to the influence of context, must less question the validity of the alternatives presented.

One of the important tasks of media research is to keep tabs on the "reputation and credibility" of public figures. Advertisers want to know which figures are most believable, who is most liked by the public. The answers to such questions determine the figures value as a spokesperson for the advertiser's product. Credibility has become a commodity not only to be feigned but also to be bought and sold on the open market.

Advertisers know that we believe what we believe and buy what we buy in the service of self image. They imbue their products with a "personality". To claim the desired persona, all we need to do is to purchase and display the right products.

Communicators can make themselves seem trustworthy by apparently acting against their own self interest. If we are led to believe that communicators have nothing to gain and perhaps even something to lose by convincing us, we will trust them and they will be more effective.

When the message conflicted with their expectations, listeners perceived the communicator as being more sincere and they were more persuaded by his statement

Not only do we tend to take more notice to unexpected events, but we also attribute more credibility to speakers who appear to resist the pressures of their colleagues and who take stands in opposition to their backgrounds.

Another way of increasing the perception of credibility: The apparent trustworthiness of a person can be increased and the apparent bias of the message deceased if the audience is absolutely certain the person is not trying to influence them.

Specific advice for making yourself likable: say what the audience thinks (which you can find out through polling), make others feel comfortable, and control the atmosphere (the situation) for your best advantage.

For increasing credibility - set easy initial goals and then declare victory (this will create the perception that you are a strong leader); use setting to support image; choose the negatives that will be written about you; and understand how people see things, then appeal to what they prefer.
Float an idea without attribution (that is, circulate a rumor). If everyone likes the idea, then claim it as your own. If it gets shot down, then deny your campaign ever said it. In this manner, you can always be sure to say exactly what everyone wants to hear. Another piece of advice: make sure you appear consistent in the media. And the best way to do this? Just say a few things over and over again (that way, you don't contradict yourself)

Credibility is manufactured, not earned. Credibility is created by carefully managing the situation so that the communicator, looks just the way he or she is supposed to look - likeable, credible, strong, expert, or whatever image is needed at the time.

Models are effective for two primary reasons. First they teach new behavior. Second we behave like our model because we believe the rewards received by a model for a given behavior will also come to us. It serves as a cue to indicate that a certain behavior is legitimate and appropriate. It can shape and twist our understanding of what is right and wrong. A model is most effective when he or she is high in prestige, power, and status, is rewarded for performing the behavior to be learned, provides useful information on how to perform the behavior, and is personally attractive and competent in facing life's problems - the model is a credible and attractive source.

Confidence of the speaker - the more self assured and confident a communicator appears, the more likely that we well accept what is said - low rates of speech error, an authoritative tone of voice, and a steady body posture, are positively related to persuasion.

Load a speech with the "correct" symbols and buzzwords as a means of informing the recipient that the message is acceptable and worthwhile.

Heuristic - a simple cue or rule for solving a problem
Five conditions that are most likely to lead to heuristic rather than rational decision making
1 When we do not have time to think carefully about an issue
2 When we are overloaded with information that it becomes impossible to process fully
3 When we believe that the issues at stake are not very important
4 When we have little other knowledge or information on which to base a decision
5 When a given heuristic comes quickly to mind as we are confronted with a problem

Self generated persuasion - getting someone to role play an opponent's position, or by asking a person to imagine adopting a course of action - is one of the most effective persuasion tactics ever identified. It gains its power from providing subtle social cues and directions that ask the target of influence, in effect, to think up as many positive cognitive responses about the issue as you can and, if you do happen to come up with some counter arguments, to be ready to refute them. The resulting message will come from a source that you almost always consider credible, trustworthy, respected, and liked - yourself. The act of generating arguments is an act of commitment to the cause. After all, they're your ideas, aren't they?

Vivid messages affect our cognitive responses in at least four possible ways
Attracts attention - it helps the communication stand out in the message dense environment
It can make information more concrete and personal
Its appeal directs and focuses thought on the issues and arguments that the communicator feels are most important
It can make the material more memorable. This is especially important if we do not reach an immediate conclusion but base our later judgments on information that comes readily to mind.

Frequent repetition of an advertisement helps to meet multiple marketing objectives in a cost efficient manner. Repeatedly exposing consumers to an ad is a good way to introduce a new product or to remind customers of the value of an older brand. Often, repeat exposure is an unintended consequence of attempting to present an ad to multiple target audiences (the members of which may overlap). With the high cost of creating and producing new advertising ideas and slogans, its makes sense to stick with proven winners.

The rank and file are usually much more primitive than we imagine. Propaganda must therefore always be essentially simple and repetitious. In the long run only he will achieve basic results in influencing public opinion who is able to reduce problems to the simplest terms and who has the courage to keep forever repeating them in this simplified form despite the objections of intellectuals.

Advertisers know that repeated exposure can leas to what is known as "wear out" - when an ad loses its effectiveness because consumers find repeated exposures to be tedious and annoying. Wear-out effects are most likely to occur with ads that attract much attention, such as humorous ads and informational messages. Advertisers attempt to eliminate wear-out by using a technique known as "repetition with variation". In this technique, the same information or theme is repeated many times, but the presentation format is varied.

If you don't have anything to say, sing it. In other words, a mild distraction can disrupt counter arguing and increase the effectiveness of a persuasive message. A lively song can make us happy and thus help use think happy thoughts about a product. At other times the song may get stuck in our head, reminding us of the brand name. At still other times a catchy song or a big production number can attract our attention to the ad so that we don't change the channel or go to the bathroom and we at least hear the advertisers message.
The trick for the advertiser is to provide just enough of a distraction to disrupt counter arguing but not so much that it eliminates the reception of the message.
Distraction increases the effectiveness of weak arguments (because it disrupted counter arguing) but decreases the impact of strong arguments (because it disrupted the ability to pay close attention to the cogent argument being made).

People are less able to develop counter arguments to a time compressed message and that time compressing a message consisting of strong arguments reduced persuasion whereas it increases the persuasive impact of a message containing weak arguments.

Most of us have a strong desire to be correct - to have "the right" opinions and to perform reasonable actions. When someone disagrees with us, it makes us feel uncomfortable because it suggests our opinions or actions may be wrong or based on misinformation. The greater the disagreement, the greater the discomfort.
But this does not necessarily mean the members of an audience will change their opinion.
There are at least four ways in which the members of an audience can reduce their discomfort:
1 Change their opinion
2 Induce the communicator to change his or her opinion
3 Seek support for their original opinion by finding other people who share their views, in spite of what the communicator says
4 Derogate the communicator - convince themselves the communicator is stupid or immoral - and thereby invalidate that person's position.

One sided or two sided argument
If a communicator mentions the opposition's arguments, it might indicate that he or she is an objective, fair minded person; this could enhance the speaker's trustworthiness and thus increase his or her effectiveness. On the other hand, if a communicator so much as mentions the arguments on the other side of the issue, it might suggest to the audience that the issue is a controversial one; this could confuse members of the audience, make them vacillate, induce them to search for counter arguments, and ultimately reduce the persuasiveness of the communication.
It depends to some extend on how well informed the audience is and on the audience's initial opinions on the issue. The more informed the members of the audience are, the less likely they are to be persuaded by an argument that brings out the important opposing arguments and then attempts to refute them. This makes sense: a well informed person is more likely to know some of the counter arguments; when the communicator avoids mentioning these, the knowledgeable members of the audience are likely to conclude that the communicator is either unfair or unable to refute such arguments. On the other hand, an uninformed person is less apt to know of the existence of opposing arguments. If the counter argument is ignored, the less informed members of the audience are persuaded; if the counter argument is presented, they might get confused.
Another factor is the partisanship of the audience. If a member of the audience is already predisposed to believe the communicator's argument, a one sided presentation has a greater impact on his or her opinion than a two sided presentation. If, however, a member of the audience is leaning in the opposite direction, then a two sided refutation argument is more persuasive.
The more frightened a person is by a communication, the more likely he or she is to take positive preventive action. Fear can be a powerful motivating psychological force, channeling all our thoughts and energies toward removing the threat so that we don't think about much else.

People who had a reasonably good opinion of themselves were the ones most likely to be moved by high degrees of fear arousal. People with low opinions of themselves were the least likely to take immediate action when confronted with a communication arousing a great deal of fear - but after a delay, they behaved very much like the subjects with high self esteem. People who have a low opinion of themselves may have difficulty coping with threats to themselves. A high fear communication overwhelms them and makes them feel like crawling into bed and pulling the covers up over their heads. Low or moderate fear is something they can more easily deal with at the moment they experience it. But, given time - that is, if it is not essential they act immediately - they will be more likely to act if the message truly scared the hell out of them.

If the recipients of fear appeal perceive that there is no way to cope effectively with the threat, they are not likely to respond to the appeal but will just bury their heads in the stand.

In sum, a fear appeal is more effective when
It scares the hell out of people
It offers a specific recommendation for overcoming the fear arousing threat
The recommended action is perceived as effective for reducing the threat
The message recipient believes that he or she can perform the recommended action
The recipient's attention is first focused on the painful fear. In such a frightened state it is difficult to think about anything other than getting rid of the fear. Next, the propagandist offers a way to get rid of that fear - a simple, doable response that just happens to be what the propagandist wanted you to do all along.

Creating granfalloons - proud and meaningless association of human beings.
People acted as if those who shared their meaningless label were their good friends and close kin. They indicated that they liked those who shared their label. They allocated more money and reward to those group members who shared their label and did so in a competitive manner.
What makes a granfalloon tick - two psychological processes, one cognitive and one motivational. The knowledge that "I'm in this group" is used to divide up and make sense of the world. Differences between groups are exaggerated, whereas similarities among members of the granfalloon are emphasized in the secure knowledge that "this is what our type does." One serious consequence is that out group members are dehumanized; they are represented in our mind by a simple, often derogatory label, as opposed to unique individuals. It is a lot easier to abuse an abstraction. Second, social groups are a source of self esteem and pride. To obtain the self esteem the group has to offer, members come to defend the group and adopt its symbols, rituals, and beliefs.
Herein lies the secret to the persuasiveness of the granfalloon. If the professional persuader can get us to accept his or her granfalloon, then we have a ready made way to make sense of our lives - the propagandist's way - and as our self esteem becomes increasingly linked to these groups, we have a strong motivation to defend the group and to go to great lengths proudly to adopt its customs. What the propagandist is really saying is: "You are on my side (never mind that I created the teams); now act like it and do what we say."
Sometimes granfalloons come ready made. Each group is associated with a certain self image and lifestyle. Products are given a "personality" that fits the image of the target market; this advertising then goes on to create further the image of each granfalloon by specifying what needs to be done to maintain a certain image.
Shared emotion and feeling can also create a granfalloon. A sense of oneness with others can be produced by sharing a fun time, a sad situation, or a harrowing experience.

Co option tactic - subtly to change a person's granfalloon - corporation gives active critic a new position, often highly visible but without real power within the organization. Gradually, the critic becomes increasingly isolated from old "activist" friends and increasingly dependent on the corporation for material resources and a sense of identity. The opposition is defused as ties with the old granfalloon are dissolved.

Guilt - the feeling that we are responsible for something wrong whether real or imaginary - leads to compliance
Why it works
Sympathy, or feeling sorry for the victim
Restitution, or feeling the need to compensate for the wrongdoing
Generalized guilt, or the desire to repair a self image tarnished by a transgression
When we feel guilty we typically pay little attention to the cogency of an argument, to the merits of a suggested course of action. Instead, our thoughts and actions are directed to removing the feeling of guilt - to somehow making thing right or doing the right thing. We fall into the rationalization trap.

Commitment can be self perpetuating, resulting in an escalating commitment to an often failing course of action. Once a small commitment is made, it sets the stage for ever increasing commitments. The original behavior needs to be justified, so attitudes are changed; this change in attitudes influences future decisions and behavior. The result is a seemingly irrational commitment to a poor business plan, a purchase that makes no sense, a war that has no realistic objectives, or an arms race gone out of control.

When made to feel like a hypocrite, these people found the one sure way to restore their feelings of integrity: to begin to practice what they were preaching. If we are not made starkly aware of our hypocrisy, we all share the tendency to push the hypocritical behavior out of sight and do nothing about it.

When we discover that a commodity is scarce or may be unavailable, one of first inferences is that is must also be desirable. Why else would it be so rare? We tend to use a simple rule, or heuristic: If it is rare, if it is unavailable, then it must be valuable.
Scarcity and unavailability can do more than just make an object appear more desirable. When a phantom alternative is present, it can also result in a change in the perception, evaluation, and ultimate choice of the available options.
The presence of an attractive phantom made the other options look less attractive - a contrast effect similar in nature to, but opposite in direction from, that found with decoys. Second a phantom changed the relative importance given to the criteria for making a decision. Specifically, the attribute on which the phantom was superior was rated as most important for making the decision.
Owning an object that is scarce for or unavailable to everyone else is a means of defining one's self: "I am unique and special because I won something that no one else (or at least not many) has been able to obtain." Just hearing about a phantom may induce worry and concern: "If they bring out a better product, I'll be stuck with this thing. Maybe I should wait."
Phantom trap - fixation - focus attention on the scarce or unavailable item By concentrating on the scarce or unavailable, we may forget or overlook the possible. The presence of an attractive but currently unavailable object can focus our attention and resources on obtaining the desired prize. Settling for less than the phantom becomes a conflict that can only be resolved by "strength of willpower," a test that many of us often fail.
In many cases, phantom fixation can be a waste of time and energy, especially when the phantom is really a "red herring" of sorts - a truly unavailable option.
Consumer catch 22 carousel - obtaining a scarce and rare product adds to one's self image as a unique and special person. Manufacturers know this and design and market their products accordingly. If the marketer does a good job of creating a perception of the product as unique, then you desire and acquire it. But the catch is, so does everyone else; suddenly you are no longer an original. Instead of acquiring a product that makes you unique, you have obtained one that makes you just like everyone else. This further heightens the need for uniqueness, and off we go in an endless pursuit of the next faddish phantom. Once we begin using material goods to define ourselves, we are doomed to be on an endless treadmill of dissatisfaction.

Selectivity of news - without some form of censorship, propaganda is impossible. In order to conduct propaganda there must be some barrier between the public and the event. Access to the real environment must be limited, before anyone can create a pseudo environment that he thinks wise or desirable. For while people who have direct access can misconceive what they see, no one else can decide how they shall misconceive it, unless he can decide where they shall look, and at what.

Everyday news - selection of news
News reporters typically work beats - they are assigned a group of institutions to cover. This immediately injects one source of bias into news coverage - something that happens off or between beats has a lower chance of being covered unless it is a major disaster or other spectacular event. Off beat stories rarely are covered and aren't considered news.
Most reporters are on a deadline; they must prepare a given number of stories by a certain time regardless of what is happening. In order to meet their deadlines, reporters place a premium on sources that can be easily contacted and trusted. This also creates bias in at least two ways. First, the reporter develops a routine for covering a story - ignoring potentially relevant avenues of investigation. Second, the reporter's routine results in the same type of people appearing on the news repeatedly.
Increasingly, reporters work for a corporation. This concentration of ownership results pressure on the reporter; certain stories are encouraged or not encouraged depending on their implications for the parent corporation. More subtly, however, corporate ownership biases programming and coverage.
As difficult as these pressures may seen, the journalist faces one more pressure that may mean her or his livelihood - the ability of the news story to hold the audience's attention. All television programming, including the evening news, must strive for profits - and that translates into securing ratings and viewers that will attract advertising dollars. And what induces people to watch the news concludes that most viewers want to be amused and diverted; being informed is only a secondary motive for watching. To guarantee high ratings and revenues, mass media content tends to be agreeable and to require little effort on the part of consumers, while still being arousing, emotionally engaging, and above all entertaining.
What makes a great news story? Stories that
Are new and timely
Involve conflict or scandal
Concern strange and unusual happenings
Happen to familiar or famous people
Are capable of being made dramatic and personal
Are simple to convey in a short space or time
Contain visual elements
Fit a theme that is currently prominent in the news or society
The result of this itch for entertainment is sound bite and photo op news - a montage of brief visual images that play to the crowd. Each event and every idea must be part of a dramatic story amply illustrated with visual displays. Stories that are easily dramatized and visualized are readily covered. More complex issues receive little attention unless they can be made concrete and visual.

As one's confidence is weakened, a person becomes less prone to listen to arguments against his or her beliefs. Thus the very people you most want to convince and whose opinion might be the most susceptible to being changed are the ones least likely to continue to expose themselves to a communication designed for that purpose.

People tend to acquire information mostly about things that they find of interest and tend to avoid information that does not agree with their beliefs. Should someone find that they have been unavoidably exposed to uninteresting and disagreeable information, a common response is to distort and reinterpret that information, thus ignoring its implications for updating beliefs and attitudes.

The use of entertaining programs to disseminate a point of view has been successful in achieving high audience ratings and in changing people's attitudes and behaviors. Not appearing to be explicit attempts at persuasion, they should arouse little resistance, inhibiting the formation of counter arguments by distracting the audience. Most importantly, people will probably watch them without switching channels.

Information campaigns can succeed if they follow these simple rules:
Make the program entertaining
Do not directly attack a viewer's attitude and beliefs

Effective propaganda relies on heuristics and appeals to the emotions.
Its propaganda's effect for the most part must be aimed at the emotions and to a very limited degree at the so called intellect. We must avoid excessive intellectual demands on our public. The receptivity of the great masses is very limited, their intelligence is small, by their power of forgetting is enormous. In consequence of these facts, all effective propaganda must be limited to a very few points and must harp on these slogans until the last member of the public understands what you want him to understand by your slogan.

AND much more. Its very informative. I highly recommend this book.

I can't recommend this book enough..........2006-12-16

I am writing a thesis for a my master's on myths, and relating that to propaganda, which led me to this book.
I can't say enough great things about this book. I relates all of the ideas to everyday occurances common to the "layman".
This book is great for research, and also just to learn how the world is really ran.
Get it.

Propaganda exposed!.......2006-05-06

I agree with the critics that this book is not all that scientific in its study of propaganda. That aside the book illustrates a 'real world' approach. The authors reveal everyday propaganda by contrasting debunked stats and figures(+ satire). There are a lot of opinionated theories which should be taken with a pinch of salt. Keep in mind that you won't get any reasons for why people react the way they do to propaganda, you'll only find demonstrations of propaganda at large. This is in part due to the authors dissection of the pop-cultural and not the psychological aspect of propaganda.

Securing Your Compliance = No Great Hurdle.......2005-12-06

"Age of Propaganda" spells out in plain terms [contrary to another reviewer's finding of the book as being too "wordy"] how mass media is as a leveraging tool used by those in positions of power to coerce "decision by persuasion."

To quote the authors, "the goal of modern propaganda is not to inform and enlighten but rather to move the masses toward a desired position or point of view...these appeals persuade not through the give-and-take of argument and debate but through the manipulation of symbols and of our most basic human emotions...[and that]...the most important determinant is the thoughts running through one's head as a persuasive communication is seen and heard[and]in general, we humans seek to conserve our cognitive energy by taking mental short-cuts whenever we can, and we attempt to rationalize our thoughts and behavior so that they appear reasonable to ourselves and others. Most propaganda appeals attempt to take advantage of these two human tendencies."

Anthony Pratkanis and Elliot Aronson really put together a humdinger here. I'd like to offer a personal thanks to them as their book had a profound influence on me. In the early 90s I was working as a janitor at a college and found a stack of "free for all" books, and, being a reader, rummaged through and came up this dandy heavy hitter. Although, say, much like Mark Achbar and Peter Wintonick's in depth documentary on dissident Noam Chomsky and media propaganda, "Manufacturing Consent," also from that era, some of the info has in a short time span become not so much obsolete as it's become more dire and omnipresent in governmental/corporate policy and application.

For instance, if I recall, at the time when "Manufacturing Consent" was released, there were some forty parent corporate giants controlling mass media worldwide, as where now power has been consolidated, and that number is around five or six. That in itself should deeply concern everyone, yet most people probably aren't aware of it, and would only give you a blank stare if you brought it to their attention. And that's precisely why "Age of Propaganda" is such a useful book; it simplistically lays out the historical foundation of propaganda, and how and why it's used against us. The statistics presented to show how many mass media messages are consumed annually by the average person alone is quite disturbing and offers a clear example - hopefully to those who refuse to acknowledge the magnitude of the process - of how the power of persuasion works.

As of 1992, the U.S. spent four-hundred million per year on propaganda {imagine what it must be now!}. 1-4 headings are taken from the book, the explanations aren't.

1)"The message must attract the recipient's attention."

Often this is the classic Problem/Reaction/Solution ruse: government *creates* the dilemma, misdirects and places blame elsewhere, uses the media to exploit the public's fears over the dilemma, and as the public demands resolution, even if they're truly in the dark as to how/why the dilemma came about, then government can implement draconian measures to "solve" the problem, when in reality, their "fix" is merely Big Brother's way of further stacking the odds in power's favor over democratic interference.

2)"The arguments in the message must be understood and comprehended."

This one's a no-brainer, just play off of the public's general ignorance and lack of knowledge and awareness. Dumb the message down and exploit the public's fears while simultaneously making the them feel better, stronger, for believing the lies. If you have a whole bunch of idiots all believing the same lies, the collective ignorance and adhered-to unreality is in turn reinforced. ...*pssst,* this is truly a BAD, SCARY thing, k?

3)"The recipient must learn the arguments contained in the message and come to accept them as true."

People have been culturally trained to watch TV. They generally believe what TV instructs them to believe, even though such psychological gymnastics aren't cast in stone, and most people would voice the opinion that TV lies. So, in order to get around that, the powers that be, through media "de-regulation" policies {go look it up yourself!} forged a stronghold within mainline media over the past twenty years in order to help shift public opinion to their Rightist, lunatic position. This explains the "need" for 24/7 cable "news," talk radio, and even the allowance of an illusory "lefty" democratic party which works to establish the Right's agenda by calling itself "moderate." The repetition of lies and propaganda leads to mass acceptance of lies and propaganda as "truth." Plus, a handful of scoundrel's make big money from the chaos, misery and war profiteeering.

Which in turn leads to 4)"We act on this learned knowledge and beliefs when there is incentive to do so."

The incentive is obvious: IT MUST BE REAL IF IT'S ON TV! Strength in numbers, that is, United We FALL. So, people give up civil liberties for the illusion of security.

Security from whom, exactly? Those who ordered NORAD and the FAA to stand down for ninety minutes during the attacks of 9/11?

And that, unfortunately, is the dark heart of the matter.
In an illusory democracy, if Big Daddy Boss Goliath wants to further decimate poor little David, then Goliath will need to justify doing so, right? Which, given the grotesque military and economic discrepencies between the two, which should be an obvious elementary truth, is going to require A LOT of persuasion on Goliath's part to convince everybody that David does indeed pose a terminal threat.
And if, say, Goliath doesn't just have his deadly sights set on David, but on many other people too, well then, the "justification" and deceptive staging of David and Co. as 'Hitler's' and 'Satan's' is going to have to be utmost convincing. Repetition of lies, right? And since the factual reality of the situation could easily be picked apart, then the agenda-setting media need be tucked securely in Goliath's pocket to shut out reality, and a violent, devestating, emotional shock would certainly be helpful in clouding everyone's instincts and moral judgement ...wouldn't it?

"One of the most important determinants of learning is incentive; a persuasive message is learned and accepted if it is rewarding to so." ~ from "Age of Propaganda"

In this age of unprecedented social change and cultural and political upheavals, of mind boggling numbers of unwary, uninformed people who have bought into our government's phony "war on terror," who've ignored the perilous, unconstitutional, 'Orwellian' surveilance system which has permeated our world like a bad rash, now more than ever do people need to educate themselves as to how propaganda works and why those in positions of power use it against us.

The primary dilemma people have with discerning and acknowledging propaganda is that Establishment Power has naturally adopted the refutation of it as one of its main talking points. The socio/political fabric of America's environment is so utterly dense with Right wing propaganda that many can't see beyond mainstream media's criterion, although, as an institution that cannot afford to completely ignore the rising tide of dissenting voices, it's collectively been forced to "allow" various "framed" criticisms. However, these criticisms, framed as such, only serve as further misdirection while making cosmetic attempts at democratic appeasement by setting up the straw man to be torn apart by the Right.

Psychologically, the Right's agenda is rooted in imputing to all opponents of its unconstitutional, theocratic state-bound, treasonous, war-profiteering agenda, that which it collectively is most guilty of itself. What's happened here is actually far worse than any mere "conspiracy;" we exist in an age where most of us have unprecedented access to oodles of information, yet, according to our actions, or more revealing, our lack-of-proper-reaction-to, this country is laboring under a heavy toll of a spiritual and mental illness that has enabled millions to believe Goliath's monumental B.S. ...and not just to believe it, but for many to actually cheer on the debauchery. Wowzer bowzer.

In my copy of "Age," I count twenty-one reference pages, so to answer the reviewer, "sportsguy," who boasted that this book isn't sourced and that its authors used it as a vehicle to smear republicans, the reviewer, if he even read the book, should note that it was written on the tail end of twelve years of shady republican rule, and that just because the book doesn't reflect the reviewer's version of "reality," that in itself doesn't in any way invalidate the numerous sources that the authors *did* reference.

Soft Insight.......2005-08-19

Well written, interesting and worth reading, but a bit dated and fluffy in content

Illegal Drugs: A Complete Guide to their History, Chemistry, Use, and Abuse

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Gain Knowledge in the Understanding of Addiction
Good Insight
Facinating
Excellent, readable review of the drug world
Teachers, Take Note!

Illegal Drugs: A Complete Guide to their History, Chemistry, Use, and Abuse
Paul Gahlinger
Manufacturer: Plume
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Paperback

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ASIN: 0452285054
Release Date: 2003-12-30

Book Description

Does Ecstasy cause brain damage? Why is crack more addictive than cocaine? What questions regarding drugs are legal to ask in a job interview? When does marijuana possession carry a greater prison sentence than murder?

Illegal Drugs is the first comprehensive reference to offer timely, pertinent information on every drug currently prohibited by law in the United States. It includes their histories, chemical properties and effects, medical uses and recreational abuses, and associated health problems, as well as addiction and treatment information.

Additional survey chapters discuss general and historical information on illegal drug use, the effect of drugs on the brain, the war on drugs, drugs in the workplace, the economy and culture of illegal drugs, and information on thirty-three psychoactive drugs that are legal in the United States, from caffeine, alcohol and tobacco to betel nuts and kava kava.

Customer Reviews:

Gain Knowledge in the Understanding of Addiction.......2007-08-10

This book was an eye-opener. I specifically bought it for an online course I am taking towards my CASAC certification. It gave me information that I wasn't aware of. An excellent book for anyone, even if you are not in the field of counseling or medicine.

Good Insight.......2007-08-09

The subject of illegal drug abuse in the US and all around the world is explored in this book. The book provides thorough information about chemical charateristics, type of drug, street names, origin, the ethnic group or race the drug is associated with, synthetic forms of the drug as well as an interesting history of the particular drug and their use dated back centuries ago!

Overall I found this book an informative, engaging read and would strongly recommend it to anyone!

Facinating.......2007-04-06

Unbiased look at American facinations with drugs. Gives all the dangers, yet explains WHY folks would use them.

Excellent, readable review of the drug world.......2006-09-05

This is among the most readable reference books written. The history and relationships of abusable drugs are covered. Then, commonly abused drugs receive individual attention. The information seems accurate and factual, and the author is a University-based M.D.

Unfortunately, he doesn't always note the source of some quotes clearly in the text. This leaves one wondering, at times, if the quote was intended to demonstrate a truth or a misconception -- especially if the topic in question is controversial. There are only occasional, minor references to sensationalistic stories that leave one wondering if they're true.

The author's bias (having read 2/3rds of the book so far), seems to be that the "War on Drugs" has not worked, but he's not a promoter of drug use, noting frequently the enormously harmful effects of drugs on both individuals and society. He describes both the positive and negative uses of drugs.

While this book contains a great deal of medical info, it is written for an educated layman and is not filled with the arcane technical writing and jargon of typical medical texts. Highly recommended overall.

Teachers, Take Note!.......2006-07-28

I thought I already knew quite a bit about illegal drugs, but this book is CHOCK-FULL of information. What stands out in my memory is the woodcut of the medieval "witch" applying LSD to her vaginal mucous membrane while riding a broomstick - wooow!

I thought I was a mini-expert on Malignant Hyperthermia, only to learn the new drug Ecstasy causes MH and is treated similarly with ice and Dantrolene. He also describes how to use Prozac (a re-uptake inhibitor) to protect oneself from nerve terminal destruction caused by Ecstasy.

These fun little nuggets of information could be used to liven up any Biology lecture! I especially liked how he compared the effects and risks of each drug of abuse and gave examples of famous users. He made what could have been a boring topic, very engaging and relevant.

The Use and abuse of eschatology in the Middle Ages (Mediaevalia Lovaniensia)

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The Use and abuse of eschatology in the Middle Ages (Mediaevalia Lovaniensia)

Manufacturer: Leuven University Press
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Unknown Binding

Linguistics | Words & Language | Reference | Subjects | Books

Alexander The Great: The Invisible Enemy

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Curious?????
O'Brien's Book is really great
Surely carefully researched, but ...
Great book on Alexander the Great
A Very Unusual Biography of Alexander the Great

Alexander The Great: The Invisible Enemy
John O'brien
Manufacturer: Routledge
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Paperback

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ASIN: 0415106176

Book Description

In the last seven years of his life, Alexander the Great grew increasingly unpredictable, sporadically violent, megalomaniacal and suspicious of friends as well as enemies. This latest biography of antiquity's most renowned conqueror differs from others in its detailed assessment of Alexander's psychological development.

In Alexander The Great John Maxwell O'Brien takes an imaginative approach to his subject in choosing Dionysus, the god of wine and ambivalence, as the framework for a discussion of Alexander's alcoholism and often contradictory personality traits.

O'Brien's pursuit of his subject explores every imaginable detail, discussing Alexander's cultural tastes, religious beliefs, parents, aspirations, exploits, fears, sexuality and alcoholism. Alexander The Great takes into account the latest scholarship in the field, incorporating the latest methods of interpretation in archaeology, anthropology, psychology, mythology and philosophy.

Customer Reviews:

Curious?????.......2007-01-05

What on earth is a "reluctant heterosexual"? From what I know of ancient Greek history, there was no such term as homosexual, heterosexual or bisexual. It is only modern historians who feel the overwhelming need to add labels, and usually the label that best suits their own sexuality. If a "hero" is considered heterosexual then their exploits with the opposite sex are essential to their character and to understanding them. Can you imagine a historian recounting the life of Marc Antony or Julius Caesar for that matter without mentioning Cleopatra or a history of Napoleon without Josephine? And yet here we have another historian placing another annoying tag. And one that doesn't make much sense.

O'Brien's Book is really great.......2005-01-13

I had the opportunity to be a student in Professor O'Brien's Alexander the Great class at Queens college. He was so knowlegdeable and eloquent in that class, his book is also a really well-rounded inquiry to Alexander. In his book, aside from his on take on Alexander, O'Brien reveals many of the differing characterizations that other leading historians such as Peter Green, Mary Renault, Robin Lane Fox, etc. attribute to Alexander. I have read a bunch of Alexander biographies, however, O'Brien's is one of the more well-rounded. Plus, he gives his own interesting opinion on the role alcohol played in Alexander's life and death. This book is excellent for someone who is a serious historian or history student, but it is also written clear enough that you don't have to be one of the latter in order to understand it. I recommmend this book, because the fair balance O'Brien gives to the debate over Alexander's mysterious and multi-faced personality.

Surely carefully researched, but ..........2004-12-03

... the chapter on Alexander's sexuality was a little bit strange. The author comes up with quite some proof that Alexander loved his own sex more than the opposite one only to conclude in the last two paragraphs that since Alexander eventually married to produce heirs (a point the author stresses) he possibly was just a "reluctant heterosexual".

I think it's a really difficult situation when biographers are influenced by their restrictive notions of human sexuality while writing about such difficult subjects. A man doesn't have to be (exclusively) heterosexual to be able to have sex with women! It's whom one really loves that counts.

And I think it's quite appaling that the heterosexuality of historical or mythical figures is always praised or not questioned while their homosexuality is either ignored, denied or heavily questioned. To have role models free of contemporary stereotypes such as Alexander the Great (or Richard Lionhart or Achilles and Patroclus) for their sexuality could make all the difference to gay youth.

Otherwise this is an interesting biography looking into some other personal aspects which are often neglected over the battle homo vs. hetero or the image of Alexander as a spotless hero.

Great book on Alexander the Great.......2003-06-18

I find this book fascinating, full of interesting facts and references. A great reading for someone who is curious to find out more about the phenomenon we call Alexander the Great.

A Very Unusual Biography of Alexander the Great.......1998-07-19

This particular book is full of references from ancient greek literature quoted to illustrate various aspects of Alexander the Great's life. It has the most complete bibliography on Alexander and students will find it is a must buy for that feature alone. The author concentrates on the deterioration of Alexander from alcohol and his parallel life with the god of wine Dionysus. Very unusual indeed...

Dirt: A Social History as Seen Through the Uses and Abuses of Dirt

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Dirt: A Social History as Seen Through the Uses and Abuses of Dirt
Terence McLaughlin
Manufacturer: Stein and Day
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Hardcover

General | Health, Mind & Body | Subjects | Books

Speed Trap: Inside the Biggest Scandal in Olympic History

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Tremendous Read
Drugs and the Elite Athlete
Talks the truth about track and field

Speed Trap: Inside the Biggest Scandal in Olympic History
Charlie Francis , and Jeff Coplon
Manufacturer: St Martins Pr
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Hardcover

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ASIN: 0312048777

Customer Reviews:

Tremendous Read.......2006-07-02

A well-written book. I highly recommend this to anyone involved in developing sprinters, as it sheds the light on the techniques of one of the sport's greatest coaches of all time. I applaud his courage to step forward on an issue that is commonplace these days. Both men's and women's elite sprinters are on performance-enhancing substances, and will remain as long as GH and such substances cannot be detected (forever). The fact remains that Ben Johnson performed at the level that he did in a time when all other sprinters were unable to do so. The current sprinters are breaking his record, and are doing so through the same means. Again, an exciting read for coaches interested in following the development of some of the world's fastest men and women in the way that it should be and is done.

Drugs and the Elite Athlete.......2002-05-29

This book was written after the Seoul Olympics and after Ben Johnson's 1st place finish. However, the logic and the motivation for using synthetic performance enhancements amongst world class athletes is clearly outlined and is applicable to all professional athletics, not just Olympic level track and field, where the financial stakes are huge for both participants and sponsors, and media attention is unrelenting. Recent revelations by MLB stars like Jose Canseco and Ken Caminiti confirm the logic and motivation so clearly, honestly and cogently outlined by Francis in Speed Trap.

Most disturbing is that there doesn't seem to be any turning back on this path of drug use among elite athletes as long as athletics continues to be the potent economic engine that it is, and continues to hold out the promise of lottery-type earnings to hopeful young athletes all over the world.

Talks the truth about track and field.......2000-01-12

Even though I know drug use runs rampant in track and field today, this book presents a side of the sport that dearly needed to be said. Most people have been too scared to publicly talk about it which I applaud him for. This book also brought to my attention the new style training methods on speed which I found extremely helpful. I would recommend this book to anyone who thinks Maurice Green or Donavan Bailey aren't on Steriods or any other form of banned ergogenic aids.

From Witches to Crack Moms: Women, Drug Law, and Policy

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From Witches to Crack Moms: Women, Drug Law, and Policy
Susan C. Boyd
Manufacturer: Carolina Academic Press
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Paperback

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Criminology | Crime & Criminals | Nonfiction | Subjects | Books

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ASIN: 0890891273

Book Description

Susan Boyd examines how the regulation of altered states of consciousness and women's bodies is not new. Like the witches of old, women suspected of using illegal drugs today are persecuted and punished. From Witches to Crack Moms offers a critique of drug law and policy and its impact on women in the United States, and illuminates similarities and differences in Britain and Canada.

Informed by a feminist sociological perspective, Boyd discusses how drug law and policy is racialized, class-biased, and gendered. She highlights how punitive drug laws inform and shape social service and medical policy and practice. Boyd also provides insight into how the war on drugs and the regulation of reproduction intersect, culminating in a volatile mix. Also examined is legal and illegal drug use, maternal drug use, and neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), against the backdrop of the regulation of all women. In addition, Boyd examines how prisons, social services, medical treatment, maternity care, drug treatment, and drug court policy and practice have been restructured as a result of the war on drugs.

Although the focus of this book is on women's experience of the war on drugs, it also examines how law and policy affect women and men in similar and different ways, and how the regulation of male drug users affects women, families, and communities. Boyd also discusses domestic and international drug policy, exploring how Western imperialism and colonization were accompanied by the condemnation of plants used in spiritual healing by indigenous peoples of North and South America. The impact of the war on drugs on women and indigenous peoples in Colombia is also discussed in order to reveal the connections between the regulation of drug use in Western liberal states and non-Western states. Boyd examines the "Americanization" of drug policy and how the war on drugs, the war on terrorism, and the war on crime are law enforcement initiatives that have that have become global in their reach.

Boyd concludes that today, as the war on drugs advances, women have plenty to fear, but not necessarily from alleged drug users and dealers, but from moral regulation in all its guises, and from state, military, criminal justice, and corporate attempts to erode democracy to further their interests in Western and Third World nations. Boyd closes by stating that social justice, rather than criminal justice, is the goal to work toward. She proposes that ending the war on drugs is one strategy on the road to achieving social justice.

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History out of Joint: Essays on the Use and Abuse of History (Parallax: Re-visions of Culture and Society)
Sande Cohen
Manufacturer: Johns Hopkins University Press
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Hardcover

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French Theory in America

ASIN: 0801882141

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In History Out of Joint, Sande Cohen considers the ways in which historical narratives summon up a past and lay down a future in the ever-multiplying intellectual debates of contemporary public culture. As competing factions advance contradictory principles to validate or discredit their preferred accounts of the past and the present, Cohen argues that the fundamental question of how these principles themselves should be addressed -- of what truly constitutes the use or abuse of history -- has been pushed aside. Taking Nietzsche's idea of a simultaneous production and "anti-production" of culture as his starting point, Cohen proposes that the real abuse lies in the attempt to establish one version of history by effacing every other and shows how this now prevalent idea of historiography reduced to a political resource has itself become a "normal" starting point of such abuse.

Cohen looks first at some current struggles to control public history, examining popular newspaper accounts of events in geopolitics and art, different views of the modern historian's role as a public authority, and the function of anecdote and its relationship to historical writing. He then turns to the works of several major figures in contemporary critical theory, including Derrida, Lyotard, and Deleuze and Guattari. Against the belief that their ideas led primarily to escapism, blindness, or endless deferral, Cohen demonstrates how their concepts of an affirmative yet critical event can be applied specifically to counter contemporary abuse of history and, in doing so, to resist social passivity, the nihilism and eschatological catastrophe of which they describe.

By Order of the President: The Use and Abuse of Executive Direct Action

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By Order of the President: The Use and Abuse of Executive Direct Action
Phillip J. Cooper
Manufacturer: University Press of Kansas
ProductGroup: Book
Binding: Paperback

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ASIN: 0700611800

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Scholars and citizens alike have endlessly debated the proper limits of presidential action within our democracy. Yet few have truly understood the nature of the president's special powers and their impact on American life. In this volume, Phillip Cooper offers a cogent guide to these powers and shows how presidents from George Washington to George W. Bush have used and abused them in trying to realize their visions for the nation.

As Cooper reveals, there has been virtually no significant policy area or level of government left untouched by the application of these presidential "power tools." Whether seeking to regulate the economy, committing troops to battle without a congressional declaration of war, or blocking commercial access to federal lands, presidents have wielded these powers to achieve their goals, often in ways that seem to fly in the face of true representative government. Cooper defines the different forms these powers take--executive orders, presidential memoranda, proclamations, national security directives, and signing statements--demonstrates their uses, critiques their strengths and dangers, and shows how they have changed over time.

Here are Washington's "Neutrality Proclamation," Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, and the more than 1,700 executive orders issued by Woodrow Wilson in World War I. FDR issued many executive orders to implement his National Industrial Recovery Act--but also issued one that led to the incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II. Truman issued orders to desegregate the military and compel loyalty oaths for federal employees. Eisenhower issued numerous national security directives. JFK launched the Peace Corps and issued an order to control racial violence in Alabama. All through executive action.

As Cooper demonstrates in his balanced treatment of these and subsequent presidencies, each successive administration seems to find new ways of using these tools to achieve policy goals--especially those goals they know they are unlikely to accomplish with the help of Congress. Reviewing all recent administrations up to George W. Bush's "faith-based initiatives," Cooper assesses the costs and benefits of these executive actions and offers a crucial new perspective on the ongoing debate regarding the expanding scope of presidential power.

This book is part of the Studies in Government and Public Policy series.

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